During the New Testament era, Judea was home to several influential groups, including the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots. According to the Jewish historian Josephus, there were about 6,000 Pharisees, 4,000 Essenes, and only a small number of Sadducees at that time. The Sadducees, drawn from the aristocracy, held key positions in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish ruling council, whereas the Pharisees, who came from the common people, were a minority in the Sanhedrin. In modern terms, this could be likened to the distinction between a ruling party and the opposition.
The Pharisees, whose name means “separated ones” or “holy ones”, appear most frequently in the Bible. They were descendants of the Hasidim, a group whose name in Hebrew means “pious ones”, “merciful ones”, or “loyal ones”. The Hasidim strictly observed the law, often hiding in the wilderness during Antiochus IV Epiphanes’ persecution of Judaism. They joined the Maccabean Revolt, helped establish the Hasmonean dynasty, and became part of the new power structure. While they sought religious freedom, the Hasmonean rulers adopted a Hellenistic style of government, with the king also serving as high priest—a combination the Pharisees could not accept. They urged John Hyrcanus I to step down from the high priesthood in favour of a priest from the legitimate Zadokite line. During this dispute, they insulted his mother, who had once been a foreign captive. Offended, John Hyrcanus I allied with the Sadducees and expelled the Pharisees from power.
After the death of John Hyrcanus I, his son Alexander Jannaeus became king. The Pharisees again protested, demanding that he relinquish the high priesthood. This led to a civil war in which 6,000 Pharisees were killed and 8,000 fled to the wilderness. Some of these fugitives, along with followers of the former high priest, are believed to have formed the Essenes. When Salome Alexandra, Alexander’s widow, became queen, the Pharisees returned to power and engaged in political struggles with the Sadducees, eventually becoming a significant political force.
The Pharisees placed great importance on keeping the law and believed that proper interpretation was necessary to apply it to changing times. They recognised not only the Pentateuch (Torah), but also the prophetic, historical, and poetic books, as well as the traditions of the elders. Their theology included belief in fate, angels, the immortality of the soul, and resurrection. This set them apart from the Sadducees, who accepted only the Pentateuch as authoritative and interpreted the law from a priestly perspective. Although both groups sought to keep the law, their interpretations differed greatly. The Sadducees, composed of high priests and aristocrats, were often distant from ordinary people, whereas the Pharisees, rooted in the common class, made their teachings more accessible. As a result, the Pharisees’ teachings were popular among city dwellers and people in the provinces—so much so that some Sadducees would pretend to be Pharisees when sent to the provinces.
The Pharisees generally held a fatalistic belief, arguing that fate—or God’s will—intervenes in human affairs, yet they also believed people have the will to do good or evil. They taught that the soul is immortal and that everyone would be judged after death based on how they had lived. To help people keep the law, they organised its commandments into 613 rules—365 prohibitions and 248 positive commands. While the Pharisees taught that all of these should be kept, people naturally disagreed on which were most important. As traditions and interpretations by legal scholars accumulated, the idea of “keeping everything” took on many different forms.
Within the Pharisees, there were schools with different approaches, the most influential being the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel. The School of Shammai was dominant during Jesus’ time, representing the interests of wealthier commoners and priests. They were conservative, preferred to maintain the status quo, rejected Gentiles, and interpreted the law very strictly in daily life. For example, regarding divorce, they allowed it only for adultery, based on a strict reading of Deuteronomy 24:1.
The School of Hillel was smaller and more open, and its teachings were more popular. Since Hillel himself was a diaspora Jew, it was perhaps natural that his school was more accepting of Gentiles and more moderate in interpreting the law. However, they were sometimes criticised for being too lenient, interpreting “indecency” in the divorce law broadly and allowing divorce for trivial reasons.
Rabbi Gamaliel, mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, was Hillel’s grandson, and his statements reflect the School of Hillel’s approach:
“Now I tell you, withdraw from these men and leave them alone. For if this counsel or this work is of men, it will be overthrown. But if it is of God, you will not be able to overthrow it, and you would be found even to be fighting against God.!” (Acts 5:38–39, WEBBE)
This outlook was typical of the School of Hillel. Gamaliel’s moderate attitude likely made him respected by all the people, and God may have used his disposition to prevent the apostles from being killed.
The Apostle Paul studied under Gamaliel (Acts 22:3), but was much more zealous and uncompromising than his teacher. He led the persecution of Christians, even with the approval of the Sadducean high priest—normally an enemy of the Pharisees. On the road to Damascus, Paul encountered the risen Jesus, converted, and devoted his zeal to preaching Christ to the Gentiles. Paul’s determination, his unique background as a diaspora Jew with Roman citizenship, and his training as a Pharisee under the School of Hillel all contributed to his effectiveness as an apostle.
In the Bible, many Pharisees are shown opposing Jesus, which might lead some to think they were always in the wrong. However, Jesus actually told his followers to do and observe what the Pharisees taught (Matthew 23:3). What Jesus consistently criticised was their hypocrisy—the gap between their words and actions. Sometimes, Jesus interpreted the law even more strictly than the School of Shammai, and at other times, more leniently than the School of Hillel. The reason some Pharisees agreed with Jesus while others did not is that they were not a single, unified group.
Thus, it would be a mistake to assume all Pharisees were alike or that they were all bad. In reality, the Pharisees of that time were respected by many for their frugal lifestyle, their respect for elders, and their virtuous way of life and teaching. It is also worth remembering that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus—both Pharisees—took Jesus down from the cross and buried him, fulfilling prophecy. God does not discriminate and can use anyone.
